Herb Heartwood (心材 xīn cái)

Jiang Xiang

Rosewood heartwood · 降香

Dalbergia odorifera T. Chen · Lignum Dalbergiae Odoriferae

Also known as: Jiang Zhen Xiang (降真香)

Jiang Xiang (Rosewood heartwood) plant

Images shown are for educational purposes only

Jiang Xiang is an aromatic heartwood used in Chinese medicine to relieve pain, move stuck blood, and stop bleeding. It is especially valued for chest pain and injuries where blood circulation is blocked, and it appears as a key ingredient in several modern heart-health formulas used in China.

Category Hemostatic herbs (止血药) Blood-invigorating and stasis-dispelling herbs (活血化瘀药)
Therapeutic focus Cardiovascular Health Pain Management Injury and Trauma Recovery Digestive Health

TCM Properties

Temperature

Warm

Taste

Acrid / Pungent (辛 xīn)

Channels entered

Liver, Spleen

Parts used

Heartwood (心材 xīn cái)

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What This Herb Does

Every herb has a specific set of actions — here's what Jiang Xiang does in the body, explained in both everyday and TCM terms

Therapeutic focus

In practical terms, Jiang Xiang is primarily used to support these areas of health:

Cardiovascular Health Pain Management Injury and Trauma Recovery Digestive Health

TCM Actions

In TCM terminology, these are the specific therapeutic actions that Jiang Xiang performs to restore balance in the body:

Dispels Stasis and Stops Bleeding Moves Qi and Alleviates Pain Invigorates Blood and Dispels Stasis Descends Qi and Resolves Turbidity

How these actions work

'Resolves stasis and stops bleeding' is the hallmark action of Jiang Xiang. Unlike many herbs that either invigorate blood OR stop bleeding, Jiang Xiang does both simultaneously. It can disperse old, stagnant blood while also controlling active bleeding. This makes it particularly useful for traumatic injuries where there is both bleeding and bruising, as well as for conditions like vomiting blood or nosebleeds caused by blood stasis rather than by excess heat.

'Regulates Qi and relieves pain' means Jiang Xiang helps move stagnant Qi, especially in the chest, flanks, and upper abdomen. Its warm, pungent nature allows it to open channels and unblock Qi flow, which is why it is commonly used for stabbing chest pain (a sign that both Qi and blood are stuck) and pain under the ribs from Liver Qi constraint.

'Invigorates blood and dispels stasis' refers to Jiang Xiang's ability to promote blood circulation and break up accumulations of old blood. This is especially relevant for traumatic injuries with swelling and bruising, as well as for chronic chest pain due to blood stasis in the Heart vessels.

'Descends Qi and dispels turbidity' describes how Jiang Xiang's aromatic nature can clear foul, turbid Qi from the middle burner (the digestive area). When impure or noxious influences cause nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, particularly in hot summer weather, its fragrant warmth can settle the stomach and restore the normal downward flow of Qi.

Patterns Addressed

In TCM, symptoms cluster into recognizable patterns of disharmony. Jiang Xiang is used to help correct these specific patterns.

Why Jiang Xiang addresses this pattern

When blood stasis obstructs the chest, it produces stabbing, fixed pain that worsens at night or with pressure. Jiang Xiang's warm, pungent nature enters the Liver channel to invigorate blood circulation, while its ability to regulate Qi helps restore the smooth flow that prevents blood from pooling. Its dual action of moving stasis and relieving pain makes it particularly well suited for this pattern, where both Qi stagnation and blood stasis contribute to the chest pain.

A practitioner would look for one or more of these signs

Chest Pain

Fixed, stabbing chest pain that worsens at night

Angina

Chest tightness and oppression with a stifling sensation

Palpitations

Palpitations with a dark or purplish tongue

Commonly Used For

These are conditions where Jiang Xiang is frequently used — but only when they arise from the specific patterns it addresses, not in all cases

Arises from: Blood Stasis in the Chest Qi Stagnation

TCM Interpretation

In TCM, angina pectoris falls under the category of 'chest impediment' (xiōng bì, 胸痹). The core problem is obstruction of Qi and blood flow through the chest, often involving the Heart and its vessels. The pattern most commonly seen is blood stasis in the chest, sometimes compounded by Qi deficiency or Qi stagnation. When blood fails to circulate smoothly, it pools and causes the sharp, stabbing, or oppressive pain characteristic of angina. Contributing factors can include cold congealing the blood, phlegm blocking the vessels, or long-term emotional constraint causing Liver Qi stagnation that eventually leads to blood stasis.

Why Jiang Xiang Helps

Jiang Xiang's warm, pungent nature is well suited for unblocking the chest. It enters the Liver channel to invigorate blood and dispel stasis, while its Qi-regulating action helps restore the smooth circulation that keeps blood moving through the Heart vessels. Its aromatic quality also helps descend turbid Qi and open the chest. This is why Jiang Xiang (or its volatile oil) appears in several modern Chinese patent medicines for coronary heart disease, including the Compound Danshen Injection (Fù Fāng Dān Shēn Zhù Shè Yè) and the QiShenYiQi Dripping Pills (Qí Shēn Yì Qì Dī Wán), where it serves as an envoy that guides the other herbs' actions to the chest and enhances the overall blood-moving effect.

Also commonly used for

Coronary Artery Disease

Used in modern Chinese patent medicines for ischemic heart disease

Bleeding

External bleeding from cuts and wounds, applied topically as powder

Hematemesis

Vomiting blood due to blood stasis, not from heat

Epigastric Pain Relieved With Pressure Or Eating

Upper abdominal pain from Qi stagnation

Hypochondriac Pain

Pain under the ribs from Liver Qi constraint and blood stasis

Nausea Or Vomiting

Vomiting and abdominal pain from turbid, noxious influences

Herb Properties

Every herb has an inherent temperature, taste, and affinity for specific channels — these properties determine how it interacts with the body

Temperature

Warm

Taste

Acrid / Pungent (辛 xīn)

Channels Entered

Liver Spleen

Parts Used

Heartwood (心材 xīn cái)

Dosage & Preparation

These are general dosage guidelines for Jiang Xiang — always follow your practitioner's recommendation, as dosages vary based on the formula and your individual condition

Standard dosage

9–15g

Maximum dosage

Up to 15g in decoction (added near the end of cooking). When taken as ground powder, 1–2g per dose is the standard upper limit for internal use.

Dosage notes

When used in decoction, Jiang Xiang should be added near the end of cooking (后下, hou xia) to preserve its aromatic volatile oils, which are key to its therapeutic action. The standard decoction dose is 9–15g. For direct powder ingestion (swallowed with water, not decocted), use only 1–2g per dose. External application uses an appropriate amount of finely ground powder applied directly to wounds. Lower doses are generally sufficient for Qi-regulating and pain-relieving purposes, while higher doses within the range may be used for more active Blood stasis conditions.

Preparation

Add near the end of decoction (后下, hou xia), typically during the last 5–10 minutes of cooking. This preserves the volatile aromatic oils that are essential to the herb's therapeutic activity. The heartwood should be split into thin shavings or small pieces (降香屑) before decocting to improve extraction. For external use, grind into a fine powder and apply directly to the wound.

Processing Methods

In TCM, the same herb can be prepared in different ways to change its effects — here's how processing alters what Jiang Xiang does

Processing method

The heartwood is split open and shaved or planed into thin strips or shavings (刨片或镑片). Some methods involve brief soaking and steaming before shaving.

How it changes properties

This is primarily a size-reduction method rather than a property-altering process. Shaving the dense heartwood into thin strips greatly increases the surface area, allowing the aromatic volatile oils to be extracted more efficiently during decoction. The thermal nature and actions remain essentially unchanged.

When to use this form

This is the standard form used in decoctions. Jiang Xiang should be added near the end of cooking (hou xia, added in the last 5-10 minutes) because prolonged boiling destroys its volatile aromatic compounds.

Common Herb Pairs

These ingredients are traditionally combined with Jiang Xiang for enhanced therapeutic effect

Dan Shen
Dan Shen Dan Shen 15g : Jiang Xiang 6g (approximately 2.5:1)

Dan Shen (Salvia root) strongly invigorates blood and clears mild heat from blood stasis, while Jiang Xiang warms the channels, moves Qi, and stops bleeding. Together they provide comprehensive treatment for blood stasis in the chest, with Dan Shen addressing the blood level and Jiang Xiang opening Qi circulation. This is the classic pairing used in Compound Danshen Injection for coronary heart disease.

When to use: Chest pain and oppression from blood stasis, especially in coronary heart disease and angina pectoris with signs of both Qi stagnation and blood stasis.

Ru Xiang
Ru Xiang 1:1 (equal amounts, typically 3-6g each)

Ru Xiang (frankincense) and Jiang Xiang both invigorate blood and relieve pain, but Ru Xiang is stronger at moving Qi through the sinews and channels while Jiang Xiang adds hemostatic action. Together they enhance each other's analgesic and blood-moving effects for traumatic injuries with both pain and bleeding.

When to use: Traumatic injuries with swelling, bruising, pain, and bleeding from falls, blows, or wounds.

Huo Xiang
Huo Xiang Huo Xiang 9g : Jiang Xiang 6g

Huo Xiang (agastache/patchouli) aromatically transforms dampness and harmonises the middle, while Jiang Xiang descends turbid Qi and warms the Spleen. Together they powerfully dispel foul turbidity from the digestive system and restore the stomach's normal downward function.

When to use: Summer-season nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain from exposure to damp, turbid, or noxious influences (what classical texts call 'turbid evil').

San Qi
San Qi San Qi 3-6g : Jiang Xiang 3-6g

San Qi (notoginseng) powerfully stops bleeding and resolves stasis without leaving residual blood clots, while Jiang Xiang adds Qi-regulating and blood-moving support. Together they form a potent combination for bleeding disorders where stasis is the underlying cause, addressing both the bleeding and the stagnation simultaneously.

When to use: Internal or external bleeding with blood stasis, such as hematemesis with dark clots or traumatic hemorrhage.

Comparable Ingredients

These ingredients have overlapping uses — here's how to tell them apart

Yu Jin
Jiang Xiang vs Yu Jin

Both Jiang Xiang and Yu Jin (turmeric tuber) invigorate blood and relieve pain in the chest and flanks. However, Yu Jin is cold in nature and also clears Heart heat and cools the blood, making it better suited for blood stasis with heat signs. Jiang Xiang is warm and also stops bleeding, making it more appropriate when there is blood stasis with bleeding and no heat signs. Classical texts note that Jiang Xiang can substitute for Yu Jin in treating Liver constraint with vomiting blood.

Tan Xiang
Jiang Xiang vs Tan Xiang

Both are aromatic, warm, pungent woods that regulate Qi and relieve pain in the chest and epigastrium. However, Tan Xiang (sandalwood) primarily moves Qi and is used for Qi stagnation pain without significant blood involvement. Jiang Xiang enters the blood level more deeply, invigorating blood, resolving stasis, and stopping bleeding. When chest or stomach pain involves blood stasis, Jiang Xiang is preferred; when it is purely Qi stagnation, Tan Xiang is more appropriate.

Pu Huang
Jiang Xiang vs Pu Huang

Both Jiang Xiang and Pu Huang (cattail pollen) resolve stasis and stop bleeding. Pu Huang is more commonly used for gynaecological bleeding and urinary blood, and can be used raw (to invigorate blood) or charred (to stop bleeding). Jiang Xiang has a stronger Qi-regulating and pain-relieving effect and is more commonly used for chest pain and traumatic injuries. Jiang Xiang is also used topically for wound bleeding.

Identity & Adulterants

Related species and common adulterations to be aware of when sourcing Jiang Xiang

Jiang Xiang may be adulterated with other Dalbergia species or unrelated hardwoods. Common adulterants include dyed or scented specimens of Burmese rosewood (缅甸黄檀) or white acid rosewood (白酸枝). Adulterants typically lack the characteristic rich aroma when burned, do not produce oil droplets on burning, and lack the purple-red grain pattern on the cross-section. Su Mu (苏木, Caesalpinia sappan) heartwood has a similar reddish-brown appearance but can be distinguished by its fibrous texture, and by placing it in hot water, which turns a vivid peach-red colour (which Jiang Xiang does not). Chen Xiang (沉香, Agarwood) may superficially resemble it but has distinct black-brown resinous patches alternating with pale areas, and a very different aromatic profile. Authentic Jiang Xiang can be confirmed using thin-layer chromatography as specified in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.

Educational content — always consult a qualified healthcare provider or TCM practitioner before using any herb.

Toxicity Classification

Classical Chinese pharmacopoeia toxicity rating for Jiang Xiang

Non-toxic

Jiang Xiang is classified as non-toxic in both classical sources and the modern Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Multiple historical references including the Hai Yao Ben Cao, Pin Hui Jing Yao, and Ben Cao Gang Mu all recorded it as non-toxic (无毒). No toxic components have been identified in its heartwood. The main active constituents are flavonoids and volatile oils, which have demonstrated good safety profiles in pharmacological studies. No special processing is required to render it safe; the raw heartwood is used directly after removal of the outer sapwood.

Contraindications

Situations where Jiang Xiang should not be used or requires extra caution

Caution

Yin deficiency with vigorous Fire (阴虚火盛). The warm, dispersing nature of Jiang Xiang can further consume Yin fluids and aggravate Heat signs in people with underlying Yin deficiency.

Avoid

Blood Heat with reckless bleeding (血热妄行). Classical sources warn against use when bleeding is characterized by dark, thick blood with a replete pulse and constipation, as the herb's Blood-moving properties could worsen hemorrhage driven by Heat.

Caution

Ulcerated carbuncles or sores with profuse discharge (痈疽溃后，诸疮脓多). After lesions have broken open and are producing abundant pus, Jiang Xiang's Blood-moving action is inappropriate.

Caution

Concurrent use of anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications. The herb's demonstrated antiplatelet and blood-viscosity-lowering effects may potentiate these drugs, increasing bleeding risk.

Special Populations

Important considerations for pregnancy, breastfeeding, and pediatric use

Pregnancy

Use with caution during pregnancy. Jiang Xiang actively moves Blood and disperses stasis, which are actions traditionally considered potentially harmful to the fetus. While no specific teratogenic effects are documented, the herb's Blood-invigorating properties carry a theoretical risk of increasing uterine bleeding or disturbing fetal stability. It should be avoided unless specifically prescribed by a qualified practitioner who has determined the benefit outweighs the risk.

Breastfeeding

No specific data exists on the transfer of Jiang Xiang constituents through breast milk. Given that the herb contains bioactive flavonoids and volatile oils with antiplatelet and blood-viscosity-lowering properties, caution is advisable during breastfeeding. Use only when prescribed by a qualified practitioner, and monitor the infant for any unusual signs.

Children

No specific paediatric dosage guidelines are established for Jiang Xiang. It is not commonly used in paediatric practice. If prescribed for older children, the dose should be reduced proportionally based on age and body weight, typically to one-third to one-half of the adult dose. Not recommended for young infants or children under 3 years of age without specialist guidance.

Drug Interactions

If you are taking pharmaceutical medications, be aware of these potential interactions with Jiang Xiang

Anticoagulant and antiplatelet drugs (warfarin, heparin, aspirin, clopidogrel): Jiang Xiang has demonstrated antiplatelet activity, prostaglandin synthesis inhibition, and blood viscosity reduction in pharmacological studies. Concurrent use with anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications may increase the risk of bleeding. Close monitoring of coagulation parameters is warranted if co-administration is clinically necessary.

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins): Research indicates that Jiang Xiang's lipid-lowering mechanism involves inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase. Theoretically, concurrent use with statin drugs could produce additive effects, potentially increasing the risk of statin-related side effects such as myopathy. This interaction remains theoretical and has not been confirmed in clinical studies.

Dietary Advice

Foods and dietary considerations when taking Jiang Xiang

While taking Jiang Xiang, favour warm, easily digestible foods that support Blood circulation, such as lightly cooked vegetables, soups, and moderate amounts of warming spices like ginger. Avoid excessive consumption of cold, raw foods and iced drinks, which can impede Qi and Blood flow and counteract the herb's warming, dispersing action. Avoid greasy and heavy foods if the herb is being used for chest pain or Qi stagnation conditions.

Botanical Description

Physical characteristics and morphology of the Jiang Xiang source plant

Dalbergia odorifera T. Chen (降香黄檀) is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree in the Fabaceae (legume) family, typically growing 10–15 metres tall. It is native to Hainan Island in southern China and has been introduced to Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Yunnan, and Zhejiang provinces. The tree thrives in tropical and subtropical environments, preferring well-drained sandy or loam soils in warm, humid conditions. It is classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and is a national second-class protected plant in China due to severe overexploitation.

The medicinal part is the dried heartwood of the trunk and roots. Natural heartwood formation is an extremely slow process taking several decades, during which the pale sapwood gradually transforms into a dense, purple-brown to reddish-brown core rich in aromatic resins, flavonoids, and volatile oils. The heartwood is notably hard and heavy (density approximately 0.93–0.97 g/cm³), sinks in water, and emits a distinctive spicy, incense-like fragrance. This same wood, known as Huanghuali (黄花梨), has been prized since the Ming and Qing dynasties for high-end furniture making, contributing to its endangered status.

Sourcing & Harvesting

Where Jiang Xiang is sourced, when it's harvested or collected, and how to assess quality

Harvesting season

Can be harvested year-round (全年均可采收). The trunk is felled and the outer bark and pale sapwood are removed, leaving only the dense, aromatic heartwood, which is then dried in the shade.

Primary growing regions

The premier source of Jiang Xiang is Hainan Province, China, particularly the areas of Baisha, Dongfang, Ledong, and Sanya. Hainan is the original native habitat of Dalbergia odorifera and produces the highest quality heartwood, considered the dao di yao cai (道地药材) source. The tree has also been introduced and cultivated in Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Yunnan, and Zhejiang provinces, though Hainan material remains the most prized. Historically, imported heartwood from Indian Dalbergia (Dalbergia sissoo) was used, but since the 1960s the domestic Hainan source has been standard in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.

Quality indicators

Good quality Jiang Xiang heartwood appears as irregular blocks or cylindrical segments with a purplish-red to reddish-brown surface. The cross-section should show dense, fine wood grain. The texture should be hard and heavy, with a noticeable oily quality. When held, good pieces feel substantial due to the high density (they will sink in water). The aroma should be subtly fragrant; when burned, authentic Jiang Xiang produces black smoke with oil droplets seeping out and leaves white ash, with a rich, incense-like scent. The taste is slightly bitter. Avoid pieces that are pale in colour (indicating sapwood contamination), lightweight, or lacking in fragrance and oiliness. Deep purple-black specimens were noted as inferior by classical sources.

Classical Texts

Key passages from the classical Chinese medical texts that describe Jiang Xiang and its therapeutic uses

《本草经疏》(Materia Medica Commentaries)

Original: 降真香，香中之清烈者也，故能辟一切恶气。入药以番舶来者，色较红，香气甜而不辣，用之入药殊胜，色深紫者不良。上部伤，瘀血停积胸膈骨，按之痛或并胁肋痛，此吐血候也，急以此药刮末，入药煎服之良。治内伤或怒气伤肝吐血，用此以代郁金神效。

Translation: Jiang Xiang is the most pure and penetrating among aromatic substances, and therefore can dispel all turbid and noxious Qi. For medicinal use, the imported variety with a reddish colour and a sweet rather than pungent aroma is superior; deep purple specimens are of poor quality. When there is injury to the upper body with stagnant Blood accumulating in the chest, causing pain on pressure in the chest or flanks — this is a sign of impending Blood vomiting. Urgently scrape this herb into powder, decoct and take it. For internal injury or liver damage from anger causing blood vomiting, use this in place of Yu Jin (turmeric) with miraculous effect.

《本经逢原》(Encountering the Sources of the Classic)

Original: 降真香色赤，入血分而下降，故内服能行血破滞，外涂可止血定痛。又虚损吐红，色瘀味不鲜者宜加用之，其功与花蕊石散不殊。

Translation: Jiang Xiang is red in colour, enters the Blood level, and has a descending nature. Taken internally it can move Blood and break stagnation; applied externally it can stop bleeding and settle pain. For patients with deficiency-related vomiting of blood that is dark and stale in appearance, adding this herb is appropriate. Its effect is comparable to Hua Rui Shi San (Ophicalcite Powder).

《本经逢原》(Encountering the Sources of the Classic) — caution

Original: 血热妄行、色紫浓厚、脉实便秘者禁用。

Translation: Contraindicated when bleeding is due to Blood Heat with reckless movement, the blood is dark purple and thick, the pulse is replete, and there is constipation.

Historical Context

The history and evolution of Jiang Xiang's use in Chinese medicine over the centuries

The name "Jiang Xiang" (降香) is a simplified form of "Jiang Zhen Xiang" (降真香), meaning "fragrance that brings down the true" or "fragrance that summons the immortals." The original name first appeared in the Tang dynasty text Hai Yao Ben Cao (海药本草), where it was described as warm, non-toxic, and effective against epidemic Qi and household disturbances. It was closely associated with Daoist ritual: burning the incense was said to attract cranes — messengers of the immortals — and it became one of the "ten great incenses" of Daoist practice.

Li Shizhen in the Ben Cao Gang Mu (本草纲目) recorded that Jiang Xiang could substitute for Mo Yao (myrrh) and Xue Jie (dragon's blood resin) in treating traumatic injuries. He also noted a remarkable case from the Ming Yi Lu (名医录): a man named Zhou, slashed by pirates, bled uncontrollably despite treatment with Hua Rui Shi San, but was healed overnight by "Zi Jin San" (Purple-Gold Powder) — which was simply powdered Jiang Xiang of the finest quality, applied to the wound. By the next day the wound had formed a scab "hard as iron" with no scarring.

In modern times, Jiang Xiang is best known as a key component of Compound Danshen Injection (复方丹参注射液), widely used across China for coronary heart disease and angina pectoris. The tree itself, Dalbergia odorifera, is simultaneously one of the most valuable furniture woods in the world (known as Huanghuali 黄花梨), which has driven it to endangered status due to demand from both medicine and luxury furniture markets.

Modern Research

4 published studies investigating the pharmacological effects or clinical outcomes of Jiang Xiang

1

Review: Phytochemistry and Biological Activity of Dalbergia odorifera (2018)

Tao Y, Wang Y. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2018, Volume 2018, Article ID 5321067

A comprehensive review cataloguing over 130 compounds isolated from D. odorifera heartwood, primarily flavonoids, phenols, and sesquiterpenes. The review summarized evidence for antithrombotic, antiplatelet, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, cytotoxic, vasorelaxant, and alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activities from various in vitro and animal studies.

PubMed
2

Review: Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Quality Control of D. odorifera (2020)

Wang J, Li X, Gao X, et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2020, Volume 248, 112328

An updated review noting approximately 175 metabolites identified from D. odorifera, with flavonoids and volatile oil as the principal bioactive groups. Confirmed wide-ranging pharmacological effects including anti-inflammatory, anti-angina, and antioxidant activities, and highlighted the herb's established role in Chinese cardiovascular medicine formulas.

PubMed
3

Inhibitors of Prostaglandin Biosynthesis from Dalbergia odorifera (1992)

Sugiyama A, Yokota M, Sato H, et al. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 1992, 40(10), 2676-2679

Isolated 15 compounds from D. odorifera heartwood and found that cinnamylphenols, isoflavans, and a benzoic acid derivative significantly inhibited prostaglandin biosynthesis and arachidonic acid-induced platelet aggregation. This provided a pharmacological basis for the herb's traditional use in Blood stasis conditions.

PubMed
4

Anti-inflammatory Effects of Latifolin from D. odorifera via NF-κB and HO-1 Pathways (2014)

Lee DS, Kim KS, Ko W, et al. Phytomedicine, 2014, 21(3), 361-369

Demonstrated that latifolin, a major neoflavonoid from D. odorifera heartwood, significantly inhibited inflammatory mediators (iNOS, COX-2, NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β) in macrophages through NF-κB inhibition mediated by Nrf2-dependent heme oxygenase-1 induction, supporting the herb's traditional anti-inflammatory applications.

PubMed

Research on individual TCM herbs is growing but still limited by Western clinical trial standards. These studies provide emerging evidence and should be considered alongside practitioner expertise.